Composition for detecting biofilms on viable tissues

ABSTRACT

A staining composition for use in making biofilm detectable on viable tissue wherein the composition preferentially stains the biofilm and comprises a staining agent in a quantity effective to stain said biofilm and render it detectable.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The application is a continuation application of, and claims the priority benefit of, U.S. application Ser. No. 16/295,774 entitled “COMPOSITION FOR DETECTING BIOFILMS ON VIABLE TISSUES,” which was filed on Mar. 7, 2019, and which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/990,755, which was filed on Feb. 19, 2014, and which is national stage application of International Application No. PCT/GB2011/001665 filed on Nov. 30, 2011, which claims priority to British Application No. 1020236.4 filed on Nov. 30, 2010. The disclosure of those applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

This invention relates to a composition which can be applied to viable tissues such as chronic wounds (e.g. leg ulcers, pressure ulcers, diabetic foot ulcers), acute wounds (e.g. cuts, abrasions, burns), skin and bone for the detection of microbial biofilms as an early warning indicator for tissue at risk of infection. More particularly the invention relates to a composition capable of making biofilms on viable tissues observable while at the same time avoiding wound and skin irritation and retardation of healing. A further embodiment of the invention relates to a kit for use in the detection of biofilms on viable tissues.

Viable tissues are often colonised by a variety of microorganisms, some of which may cause infection. It is becoming increasingly accepted that chronic and acute wound healing is impaired by the presence of microorganisms colonising the wound. Compelling evidence is emerging that these microorganisms may exist in wounds primarily in the form of biofilms. During colonisation, bacteria and other microorganisms such as yeasts and fungi, attach firmly to tissue and form biofilm via the secretion of an extracellular matrix of polymeric substances. This mode of growth imparts a degree of protection to microorganisms within the biofilm in the form of physical protection from topical and systemic antimicrobial agents due to the surrounding matrix. It is also thought that microorganisms within biofilms have altered phenotypes and genotypes compared to their freeswimming, planktonic counterparts. Biofilm microorganisms are known to be metabolically less active, and as such this may also provide a degree of resistance to traditional antimicrobial approaches such as antibiotics, which are known to work against metabolically-active bacteria. Furthermore, the presence of biofilms in wounds also impedes the host immune system in the inflammatory microbial clearance, and the granulation and re-epithelialisation phases, of the normal wound healing process.

Consequently, there is a need to develop methods or devices to rapidly detect the presence of biofilm in viable tissues before and after selected treatment protocols. This would help researchers to understand if microorganisms live in the biofilm state on skin and in wounds, and to allow them to follow maturation or clearance of such biofilm communities. A biofilm detection method or device would also allow researchers to develop effective anti-biofilm strategies and effective wound healing protocols of care, and in clinical practice, it would guide selection of appropriate wound dressings and aid the monitoring of the effectiveness of a treatment protocol given by the wound care practitioner.

Biofilms are typically comprised of bacteria encased within an exopolymeric substance (or matrix) that consists of long-chain polysaccharides with complex linkages such as 1,3- or 1,4-β-linked hexose linkages (examples of some common biofilm polysaccharides are teichoic acid, ketal-linked pryruvates N-acetylglucosamine, and the uronic acids: D-guluronic, D-galacturonic and mannuronic acids), protein (of which some may play a structural role), DNA (extracellular, some of which may have a structural role), lipids, metal ions (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Fe³⁺, etc.) and water. Biofilms may also be associated with devitalised host tissues such as slough and necrotic tissue.

Biofilm extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) are also referred to as biofilm extracellular matrix or bacterial-derived tissue. Whilst biofilm is mainly water by weight and bacteria may only comprise 10-20% of the volume of biofilm, EPS constitutes the majority of the biomass/dry weight of biofilm.

Biofilms such as those found on teeth in the form of dental plaque, are often easy to visualise with the naked eye due to their thickness, colour and the nature of the substrate on which they form. Biofilm visualisation in, for example, a chronic or acute wound is not straightforward due to the colours present in the wound and the contents of the wound. Chronic and acute wounds are usually complex in terms of containing dead or devitalised tissue (slough), exudate, pus, blood, medicaments, dressing components, in addition to bacteria and biofilm. As such it may be difficult to detect the presence of a biofilm in a wound as the visualisation of wound biofilms by the naked eye is difficult. There is thus a need for a means to aid detection of the biofilm for instance by a composition which is able to preferentially stain wound biofilms so that they can be visualised. Once visualised, the biofilm can be treated appropriately.

Surprisingly we have found that it is possible to preferentially stain biofilms by the use of a composition comprising a stain which allows the detection of biofilm.

Accordingly a first aspect of the invention provides a staining composition for use in making biofilm on viable tissue detectable wherein the composition preferentially stains the biofilm and comprises a coloured or fluorescent staining agent in solution in a quantity effective to stain said biofilm and render it detectable.

Preferably the biofilm is made detectable by the naked eye or in conjunction with illumination and/or optical devices.

Preferably the staining agent is a dye which will selectively bind to EPS/bacteria and not to host viable tissue. The staining agent should not significantly stain non-biofilm components in, for example, a chronic or acute wound, such as wound tissue, surrounding skin, slough (dead or devitalized tissue), exudate, blood, pus, inflammatory cells (neutrophils, macrophages), cells involved in the healing process (fibroblasts, endothelial cells, keratinocytes), or medicaments or dressing components that may remain in the wound. Such a staining agent would preferably be a molecule of the required size and structure; for example, a low molecular weight, compact, planar molecule that is capable of diffusion through EPS and bacterial cell membranes. The staining agent may have anionic groups to give colour and possibly fluorescent properties; and may have cationic groups for charge interactions with negatively-charged biofilm EPS polysaccharides and bacterial cell walls. These charged groups should preferably be permanent charges so that they are not affected by the pH of applied formulations or the viable tissue/biofilm environment.

Such a staining agent is preferably of a suitable colour or brightness that it may be possible to observe the stained biofilm directly with the naked eye. However, due to the complex and highly pigmented nature of wounds some colours of stain might be difficult to observe. For example, in necrotic wounds, sloughy wounds, or bleeding wounds there may be hues of black, brown, red, yellow, etc. Whilst blue or green dyes may be considered preferable here, they may appear dark or black if located adjacent to or on brown, red or yellow-coloured tissue. Rather than relying solely on the observer being able to detect the stain with the naked eye, it is preferable to use a stain that can fluoresce so that it is more readily detectable. Many classes of compounds that are potential staining agents are also fluorescent, in that they are capable of absorbing photons of light of certain wavelengths and becoming electronically excited, emitting this light energy in the form of fluorescence. It is possible to detect such fluorescence using light filters that are tailored to the fluorescence emission spectra of relevant molecules so that the observer only views a narrow spectral band that corresponds to the wavelengths of fluorescence. For example, lenses with specific optical filters, such as those used in laser safety, could be used in conjunction with an appropriately-specific light source to detect fluorescence, thereby allowing detection of biofilm on viable tissues. This method of biofilm detection may have advantages over detection using the naked eye in that fluorescent detection is possible even for very thin biofilms, which may be only a few layers of microbial cells thick and does not rely solely on the stain itself being visible.

By preferentially staining it is meant that the staining agent selectively binds to the biofilm rather than the host viable tissue. In this way, the staining agent can be used simply to detect the biofilm by revealing the presence and location of the biofilm. The staining agent becomes bound or adsorbed to extracellular biofilm matrix molecules as well as being bound or adsorbed to and/or taken up by the biofilm bacteria cells rather than the tissue of the wound. Preferably the staining of the biofilm by the staining agent reveals the presence of biofilm by making it detectable to the naked eye. For some staining agents the stained biofilm can be made to fluoresce, for instance by illumination with a light source. The fluorescence can make the stained biofilm more visible. The light source is selected to emit light of an appropriate wavelength such that the staining agent absorbs light energy in the form of photons to excite the staining agent and cause it to fluoresce. The observation of fluorescence may be enhanced using appropriate optical filters which exclude non-fluorescent wavelengths for the staining agent, for instance in the form of optically-filtered lenses.

The compositions according to a first aspect of the invention comprise one or more staining agents capable of preferentially staining biofilms. Preferably the staining agent is a dye, the biofilm-staining dye absorbing maximally in the visible region, more preferably 380 nm to 720 nm and even more preferably 500 nm to 600 nm, as this makes a wide range of light sources suitable for use with the composition of the invention or for inclusion in the kit of the invention.

Preferably the staining agent produces sufficient fluorescence for detection, such that a wavelength range suitable for excitation and a distinct and higher wavelength range suitable for fluorescence emission detection can be delivered from illumination devices and detected using optically-filtered lens devices.

Staining agents suitable for use in compositions of the invention are most preferably selected from those based upon organic chemical compounds, more likely to be those containing aromatic ring structures, for example benzene, or extended conjugation, for example in porphyrin or pheophorbides, more likely those with fused polycyclic hydrocarbons, for example naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthraline and pyrene, and most likely those also containing heterocyclic aromatic structures where the heterocyclic atom or atoms are oxygen, nitrogen or sulphur, or a mixture thereof, for example furan, thiophene, pyrrole, pyran, pyridine and oxazine.

These staining agents may also display the properties of fluorescence. Most appropriate are those that absorb and emit light of wavelengths in the visible electromagnetic spectrum (380 nm-720 nm). Such agents are likely to have chemical structures that contain an extended region of conjugation, for example fluorone and its derivatives (alternatively known as xanthenes and rhodamines) such as eosin, erythrosine, Rose Bengal, fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate, 5-chloromethyl fluorescein, 6-carboxy fluorescein, 2,7-Bis(carboxy ethyl)-5(6)-carboxy fluorescein; Rhodamine B, Rhodamine 6 G, Rhodamine 123, Rhodamine iodoacetamide, Sulphorhodamine B, Sulphorhodamine 101, tetramethyl rhodamines or Texas Red. Derivatives of cyanine such as 3,3′-dihexadecylindocarbocyanines, 3,3′-dipropyloxadicrbocyanine, aluminium phthalocyanine disulphonate, aluminium tetrasulphophthalocyanine, aluminium phthalocyanines, zinc phthalocyanines, napthalocyanines, or the mucopolysaccharide stain Alcian Blue. Acridine and its derivatives such as Acriflavine, Aminacrine, 2-aminoacridine or 9-aminoacridine. Finally, appropriate agents may come from the classes of oxazine derivatives such as Nile Blue, Nile Red, Pura Red or Fura-2; quinolone and its derivatives; adenosine derivatives such as 2′3′-O-(2,4,6-trinotro-cyclohexadienylidine)adenosine 5′-triphosphate or 3′-O—(N-methylanthraniloyl)adenosine 5′-triphosphate; triarylmethanes such as Patent Blue V, Crystal Violet, Brilliant Blue or Fast Green; 5 phenothiaziniums such as Methylene Blue or Toluidine Blue O and its derivatives such as I-methyl methylene blue or 1,9-dimethyl methylene blue; phenanthridine derivatives such as ethidium or hydroethidine; pheophorbide derivatives such as sodium pheophorbide; and porphyrin derivatives such as chlorin e6, benzoporphyrin derivatives, porphines, 10 mesa-tetra porphines, hematoporphyrins or protoporphyrins.

The staining agent is preferably included in the composition at a level of from 0.0001% to 1% by weight, more preferably 0.0025% to 0.025% by weight, even more preferably 0.0025% to 0.01% by weight.

The compositions of the present invention may be in a form that lightly adheres to tissues and may be readily rinsed away after a short duration to aid visualisation of the stained biofilm. A viscous fluid, for instance a water- or glycerol-based gel (in the form of a gel applicator, spray or sheet), foaming mousse, cream or ointment would give intimate contact with a wound bed. Alternatively, a thin, soluble, cast film or a lyophilized, dissolving wafer could be used to provide intimate contact with a wound bed. In any such delivery system the formulation preferably should be easily rinsed away from viable tissues using a standard irrigant such as saline, for a few seconds.

In gel form, the composition may also comprise a viscosifier such as a cellulose derivative such hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), carboxymethyl cellulose or hydroxypropyl cellulose; gums; sugar/alcohol derivatives such as glycerol, sorbitol, maltitol, mannitol, maltodextrin or polydextrose; natural polymers such as gelatin, pectin, chitosan or alginate; synthetic polymers such as carbopol, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol, polyacrylate, polymethacrylate, polyethylene glycol or poloxamers. Preferably the composition in gel form may comprise from 1 to 5% by weight of a viscosifier and most preferably HEC.

The composition of the invention may be in gel form and may also comprise a humectant such as propylene glycol (PG), glycerol, polyethylene glycol, polydextrose, sorbitol, triethanlolamine, cyclomethicone, ammonium lactate or glycerol ester. Preferably the composition comprises from 5% to 15% by weight of a humectant and most preferably PG.

Preferably the composition of the invention comprises excipients to optimise binding of the stain to biofilm. For instance, the composition of the invention may also comprise a metal chelating agent such as tetra sodium ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), citric acid, deferasirox, deferiprone, deferoxamine, deferazoxane, ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid, gluonic acid, nitrilotriacetic acid or trisodium citrate at a level of 0.1 to 2.0% by weight, or an agent to assist penetration of the staining agent into the biofilm such as a surfactant for example Tween 80, Span 20, or coamidopropylbetaine (CAPD) and in particular a cationic quaternary ammonium surfactant such as dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, alkyl pyridinium chloride, benzalkonium chloride (BaCl), benzethonium chloride (BeCl), disodium cocamphodiacetate, cetyl morpholinium ethosulphate or an alkyl trimethyl ammonium chloride at a level of 0.1 to 1.0% by weight. The addition of a surfactant may also act as a foaming agent. For example, the surfactants BeCl, Tween 80, Span 20, CAPD, sodium C₁₄₋₁₆ olefin sulfonate or Softisan 649 can act as foaming agents to give the formulation characteristics of a foaming mousse.

Preferably the composition of the invention has a pH in the range of from 5 to 7 and most preferably around 5.5.

Preferably the composition of the invention is in the form of a viscous fluid and comprises a viscosifier such as HEC, a humectant such as PG, a metal chelator such as EDTA, a surfactant such as BeCl and water and in particular 2.0% w/v hydroxyethylcellulose, 10.0% w/v propylene glycol, 0.5% EDTA, 0.5% BeCl and approximately 87% v/v sterile, distilled water. Alternatively, the compositions of the present invention could be in the form of a solution applied to the wound from a syringe, sachet, spray bottle, aerosol bottle, non-propellant pump bottle, brush or a gel sheet, film or dissolving wafer.

The formulation could be terminally sterilized by autoclaving or gamma irradiation. Alternatively, the formulation could be a preserved solution containing, for example preservatives such as DMDM hydantoin or parabens such as methyl-, ethyl- or propyl-paraben.

The composition of the present invention will be used primarily on viable tissues which show signs of clinical infection (inflammation, malodour, purulent exudate, hypoxia, etc.), may be at risk of infection, appear to have slough (host-derived tissue) or biofilm (bacteria-derived tissue) present, or are generally recalcitrant. The composition could also be used at dressing change, in order to detect biofilm, and also to monitor the efficacy of the treatment regime and direct future treatment via the reduction in detected biofilm.

A further aspect of the present invention relates to a kit of parts for use in the detection of biofilms on viable tissue, the kit comprising:

a composition comprising a staining agent which preferentially stains biofilms and

a light source capable of causing the staining agent to fluoresce.

Preferably the kit further comprises optical filters to enable the specific detection of fluorescence in the form of spectacles or integrated optical filters.

The light source may be a white light source such as tungsten, halogen or pulsed xenon lamp that is passed through a “short pass” filter. Preferably the light source is a monochromatic or narrow spectrum source that does not require filtering or attenuation such as a light emitting diode with an output that closely correlates with the spectral characteristics of the staining agent. As such the light source is preferably small, portable, hand-held and generates no or negligible heat. The light source may be multiple use or fully disposable.

Preferably the kit further comprises spectacles, or the light source contains an integrated lens, for use in detecting the biofilm wherein the spectacles or lens contain a filter to exclude all wavelengths of light below the absorption maxima (Abs_(max)) of the staining agent. In this way the user is assisted in detecting the fluorescence of the staining agent present in the biofilm. More preferably the spectacles or lens filter is efficient at transmitting wavelengths of light corresponding to the fluorescence emission spectra of the staining agent. The spectacles can be multiple use or fully disposable (in the same way that an integrated lens in the light source could be).

Preferably the kit further comprises a wound irrigation solution for rinsing the viable tissue before and/or after illumination with the light source.

In an example of typical use, a composition according to the invention is applied to the whole wound or desired regions in order to achieve a thin but consistent layer of composition for instance 0.1 to 0.5 cm in thickness. The composition is left in place for 0.1 to 15 minutes, more preferably 0.5 to 2 minutes. Prior to any illumination, the formulation can be left in place or more preferably excess formulation is rinsed away from the wound using a suitable wound irrigation solution. Rinsing the excess formulation away can enable the staining to show where the biofilm is in the wound so that these areas can be treated for example by curette.

The wound is then inspected for presence of preferentially stained biofilm. This may be done with the naked eye or the wound can be illuminated with a light source at a distance in the range of 1 to 50 cm. Preferably the light source is at a distance of 5 to 20 cm. The light source spectral output is selected to correspond to the fluorescence emission spectra of the staining agent; for example, for Rose Bengal, which has a fluorescence maxima of 575 nm, a suitable light source might emit wavelengths of 550-600 nm. This causes the agent in the stained biofilm to fluoresce. Preferably the user wears spectacles to observe the wound or observes the wound through an integrated lens in the light source. The spectacles or lens have a light filtration system which excludes wavelengths of light below the fluorescence emission range of the staining agent and allows any fluorescence to be seen remarkably clearly and specifically and thus, detection of any biofilm present.

Typically, treatment should take place at subsequent dressing changes. The wound can be further inspected for presence and reduction of biofilm with the naked eye or with the light source and spectacles or integrated lens. The wound can then be dressed with an appropriate primary and secondary dressing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Initial screening of selected dyes as biofilm stains using biofilms grown in the CDFF (n=6).

FIG. 2a . Screening of selected dyes as biofilm stains using biofilms grown in the CDC biofilm reactor (n=9). Absorption data.

FIG. 2b . Screening of selected dyes as biofilm stains using biofilms grown in the CDC reactor (n=9). Concentration data.

FIG. 3. Rose Bengal with EDTA and BaCl (RBEB) stained (A-C) and control (D-E) samples of meat containing mixed S. aureus and P. aeruginosa biofilms.

FIG. 4. S. aureous biofilm age vs dye concentration.

FIG. 5. P. aeruginosa biofilm age vs Rose Bengal concentration.

The following examples are illustrative of the present invention.

EXAMPLE 1

Assessment of Biofilm Stains Using the Constant-Depth Biofilm Fermenter

A constant depth biofilm fermenter (CDFF) was used to culture 4-day mixed biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Briefly, biofilms were formed in recesses in 15 PTFE pans around the rim of a rotating steel turntable onto which inoculum or sterile growth media was allowed to steadily drip. A scraper bar distributed bacterial inoculum or media over the pans as the turntable rotated, maintaining the biofilms at a steady depth. Each pan contained 5 removable plugs, 4 mm in diameter which were recessed to a depth of 300 μm. The resulting biofilms that grew in the plug recesses were reproducible in terms of appearance and microbiological composition and could be removed from the CDFF through a sampling port using sterile instruments. In duplicate, biofilm-containing pans were removed from the CDFF, rinsed once by dipping in sterile saline for 5 seconds, then incubated in 10 ml volumes of the following potential biofilm stains at 100 μM concentration in deionised water unless stated, in the dark for two minutes: Erythrosine; Rose Bengal; Fast Green; Rose Bengal with 2% w/v EDTA and 1% w/v benzalkonium chloride (BaCl) (RBEB); Rose Bengal with 2% w/v tetra sodium EDTA and 1% w/v benzalkonium chloride in a 2% w/v hydroxyethyl cellulose and 10% w/v propylene glycol gel (Gel-RBEB). Following another rinse in saline, six plugs for each stain were incubated overnight at 37° C. in 6 ml volumes of 2% sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) in water for digestion. Samples were then spun at 13,000 rpm for 10 minutes to separate the supernatant from digested cell debris. Absorption spectra of the aspired supernatants were then measured in a spectrophotometer and these spectra compared to spectra of known concentrations (100 μM) of each stain in 2% SDS.

FIG. 1 shows that Fast Green appeared to be the most effective stain of biofilms grown in the CDFF, closely followed by Rose Bengal with EDTA and BaCl in liquid form. The addition of the EDTA and BaCl excipients appeared to enhance the uptake of Rose Bengal into the biofilms.

EXAMPLE 2

Assessment of Biofilm Stains Using the CDC Biofilm Reactor

A Centre for Disease Control (CDC) biofilm reactor was used to culture 48 hour mixed biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Briefly, biofilms were formed on coupons on reactor rods which were held within the reactor vessel containing a continuously mixed culture of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa at 35° C. Biofilm-containing coupons were removed from the rods, rinsed once by dipping in sterile saline for 5 seconds, then incubated in 10 ml volumes of the following biofilm stains at 100 μM concentration in deionised water, in the dark for two minutes: Erythrosine; Rose Bengal; Alcian Blue; Rhodamine B; Rhodamine 123; Rose Bengal with 2% w/v EDTA and 1% w/v BaCl (RBEB). Following another rinse in saline, nine coupons for each stain were each added to 2 ml volumes of 2% SDS for stomaching at ‘high’ setting for 1 minute then incubated overnight in the dark at 37° C., for digestion. Samples were then spun at 13,000 rpm for 5 minutes to separate the supernatant from digested cell debris. Absorption spectra of the aspired supernatants were then measured in a spectrophotometer and these spectra compared to spectra of known concentrations (100 μM) of each stain in 2% SDS.

FIG. 2a shows how in terms of absolute absorption or ‘brightness’, RBEB was the most efficient biofilm stain, followed by the carbohydrate stain, Alcian Blue. The EDTA and/or BaCl appeared to enhance the uptake of Rose Bengal by more than 60%. When the same data was expressed as a ratio of measured absorption: absorption at 100 1.1M (i.e. concentration), Alcian Blue appeared to be the most effective biofilm stain.

EXAMPLE 3

Assessment of Biofilm Stains Using a Pork Belly Biofilm Model

A pork belly biofilm model was used to further assess biofilm stains. Pieces of pork belly were cut using a 20 mm bore and a 6 mm borer was used to create indentations in the centre of the samples. Samples were then sterilized by gamma irradiation. Samples were inoculated with 10 μl volumes of a ˜1×10⁷ cfu/ml mixed suspension of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa then incubated at 35° C. in Parafilm-sealed Petri dishes for 72-96 hours. Samples that appeared to have visible biofilms in the central bore hole only were then stained by dipping the samples into 10 ml volumes of 100 μM Rose Bengal with 2% w/v EDTA and 1% w/v BaCl (RBEB) for two minutes with rinsing in saline before and after staining. Control samples were not stained and therefore only dipped in saline for 2 minutes. Samples were then photographed, examples of which are shown in FIG. 3. The three samples (AtoC) shown that were stained with RBEB clearly demonstrate the selective uptake of the stain by the biofilms which were contained within the indentations. The three control samples show that without this staining it is difficult to ascertain if and where biofilm is present in the samples.

EXAMPLE 4

Rose Bengal Staining of Biofilms Crown Using a Membrane Filter Biofilm Model

A membrane filter biofilm model was used to study the effect of Rose Bengal concentration on the efficacy of biofilm staining. Briefly, a 5 μl volume of a 5×10⁵ cfu/ml suspension of S. aureus or P. aeruginosa was added to the centre of sterile membrane filter discs (pore size 0.2 μm; Anodise, Whatman) which were placed onto 7 ml volumes of sterile Tryptic Soya Broth in lidded 6-well plates. Samples were incubated for 4 hours (immature biofilms), and 24 and 48 hours (mature biofilms), and excess planktonic cells were rinsed from the filters. The biofilms on the filters were stained by pipetting 2 ml volumes of Rose Bengal (60 μM or 300 μM) or saline (negative control) for 30 seconds, followed by rinsing. Rose Bengal was recovered from the biofilm samples by stomaching and overnight digestion in 2% sodium dodecyl sulphate, centrifugation, then measuring of absorption spectra in a UV-vis spectrophotometer. Rose Bengal uptake per sample was determined by comparison of absorption values with a standard curve of Rose Bengal in 2% SDS. Tables 1 and 2 show that mature S. aureus and P. aeruginosa biofilms took up Rose Bengal in a dye concentration- and biofilm age-dependent manner. Only at the highest concentrations of 300 μM did the immature, 4-hour biofilms appear to be stained, although this was likely due to some staining of the filters themselves. FIGS. 4 and 5 show how mature, 48-hour biofilms of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa took up more Rose Bengal than 24-hour biofilms, and also that 300 μM Rose Bengal resulted in significantly more staining of the biofilms than 60 μM Rose Bengal. This simple method for quantifying the uptake of Rose Bengal by biofilms utilises the absorption spectra of the dye. Using the absorption spectra to quantify the dye is similar to detecting the fluorescence using a light source with optical filters. Uptake could then alternatively be observed qualitatively using the naked eye or by observing the fluorescence emission of the Rose Bengal in conjunction with a light source and optical filter.

TABLE 1 Age (h) [RB] (μM) 1 2 3 Avg S.D.  4  0 0   0   0   0   0    4  60 0   0   0   0   0    4 300  1.59  1.45  1.64  1.56  0.10 24  0 0   0   0   0   0   24  60  1.66  1.72  2.17  1.85  0.28 24 300  4.82  4.55  3.95  4.44  0.45 48  0 0   0   0   0   0   48  60  1.22  1.12  1.37  1.24  0.12 48 300  6.26  5.18  5.71  5.72  0.54

TABLE 2 Age (h) [RB] (μM) 1 2 3 Avg S.D.  4  0 0   0   0   0   0    4  60 0   0   0   0   0    4 300  1.52  1.76  1.88  1.72  0.18 24  0 0   0   0   0   0   24  60  2.04  1.76  2.02  1.94  0.15 24 300  5.05  5.84  4.41  5.10  0.72 48  0 0   0   0   0   0   48  60  3.15  1.66  2.37  2.39  0.74 48 300  6.20  9.01  6.69  7.30  1.50 

1. A staining composition for use in making biofilm detectable on viable tissue that preferentially stains the biofilm rather than the viable tissue, the composition comprising: a staining agent to stain the biofilm and render the biofilm detectable, wherein the composition is a non-gelled composition, and wherein the composition is in the form of a lyophilized wafer or a soluble film.
 2. The composition of claim 1, further comprising a preservative in the form of methyl-paraben.
 3. The composition of claim 1, further comprising EDTA.
 4. The composition of claim 3, wherein the composition comprises from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight EDTA.
 5. The composition of claim 1, further comprising a surfactant.
 6. The composition of claim 5, wherein the composition comprises from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight of the surfactant.
 7. The composition of claim 1, further comprising: from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight EDTA; from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight of a surfactant; and a preservative in the form of methyl-paraben.
 8. The composition of claim 1, further comprising a humectant.
 9. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises from 0.0001% to 1% by weight of the staining agent in the form of Rose Bengal.
 10. The composition of claim 1, wherein the staining agent is configured to absorb light of wavelengths from 380 nm to 720 nm.
 11. A kit of parts for use in the detection of biofilms on viable tissue, the kit comprising: a composition including a staining agent, wherein the composition is in the form of a soluble film or a lyophilized wafer, and wherein the composition is a non-gelled composition; and a light source to cause the staining agent to fluoresce.
 12. The kit of claim 11, wherein the composition comprises a preservative in the form of methyl-paraben.
 13. The kit of claim 12, wherein the composition includes from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight EDTA.
 14. The kit of claim 13, wherein the composition includes from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight of a surfactant, and wherein the staining agent is Rose Bengal.
 15. The kit of claim 11, further comprising: spectacles or lenses for use in detecting a biofilm, wherein the spectacles or lenses are configured to exclude all wavelengths of light except those at which the staining agent fluoresces in use of the kit; and a wound irrigation solution.
 16. A method of detecting a biofilm in a wound, the method comprising: obtaining a non-gelled composition including a staining agent which preferentially stains biofilms, wherein the non-gelled composition is in the form of a soluble film or a lyophilized wafer; and applying the non-gelled composition to viable tissue.
 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising terminally sterilizing the non-gelled composition using ethylene oxide.
 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the non-gelled composition comprises from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight EDTA, and wherein the non-gelled composition comprises from 0.1% to 2.0% by weight of a surfactant.
 19. The method of claim 16, wherein the non-gelled composition comprises a preservative in the form of methyl-paraben, and wherein the staining agent is Rose Bengal.
 20. The method of claim 16, wherein applying the non-gelled composition to viable tissue comprises: contacting the viable tissue with the soluble film or the lyophilized wafer having a thickness of at least 0.1 centimeter; and leaving the soluble film or the lyophilized wafer in place for at least 2 minutes to permit dissolution of the film or the wafer. 